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The lion (Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four big cats in the genus Panthera. With exceptionally large males exceeding 250 kg (550 lb) in weight,[Nowak, Ronald M. (1999). Walker\'s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9. ] it is the second-largest living cat after the tiger. Wild lions currently exist in sub-Saharan Africa and in Asia with a critically endangered remnant population in northwest India, having disappeared from North Africa, the Middle East, and western Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene (about 10,000 years ago), the lion was the most widespread large land mammal beside humans. They were found in most of Africa, much of Eurasia from western Europe to India, and the Bering land bridge and, in the Americas, from the Yukon to Peru.
Lions live for approximately 10–14 years in the wild, while in captivity they can live over 20 years. They typically inhabit savanna and grassland, although they may take to bush and forest. Lions are unusually social compared to other cats. A pride of lions consists of related females and offspring and a small number of adult males. Groups of female lions typically hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates. The lion is an apex and keystone predator, although they will resort to scavenging if the opportunity arises. While lions, in general, do not selectively hunt humans, some have been known to become man-eaters and seek human prey.
The lion is a vulnerable species, having seen a possibly irreversible population decline of 30 to 50% over the past two decades in its African range;[ populations are untenable outside designated reserves and national parks. Although the cause of the decline is not well-understood, habitat loss and conflicts with humans are currently the greatest causes of concern. Lions have been kept in menageries since Roman times and have been a key species sought after and exhibited in zoos the world over since the late eighteenth century. Zoos are cooperating worldwide in breeding programs for the endangered Asiatic subspecies.
] Visually, the male is highly distinctive and is easily recognized by its mane. The head of the male lion is one of the most widely recognized animal symbols in human culture. It has been depicted extensively in literature, in sculptures, in paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature.
The lioness has been recognized, however, as the pinnacle of hunting prowess from the earliest of human writings and graphic representations. The lionesses are the hunters for their pride and execute their skills with precision and complex teamwork. Each lioness develops specific skills for her role in the hunting techniques used by her pride and, generally, assumes that role during most hunts. Members of human cultures living among lions in natural habitats have understood this characteristic and often have chosen the lioness to represent their most ferocious war deities and warriors, often naming their male rulers as her "son". Examples drawn from the earliest of written records include the Egyptian pantheon deities of Sekhmet, Bast, Menhit, and Tefnut and these deities may have had precursors in Nubia and Lybia. Other Egyptian deities are quite complex and assume aspects that may include one as a lioness headed human or a lioness in specific roles. Depictions of lions hunting in groups have existed from the Upper Paleolithic period, with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves.
Naming and etymology
The lion\'s name, similar in many Romance languages, derives from the Latin leo,[Simpson DP (1979). Cassell\'s Latin Dictionary, 5th edition, London: Cassell Ltd., p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0. ] and before that the Ancient Greek leÅn/λεων.[Liddell, Henry George and Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4. ] The Hebrew word lavi (לָבִי×) may also be related,[ "Lion". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition). (1989). Ed. Simpson, J., Weiner, E. (eds). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. ] as well as the Ancient Egyptian rw.[yourdictionary.com. As in other ancient scripts, in Ancient Egyptian only the consonants are written. No distinction was made between \'l\' and \'r\'.] It was one of the many species originally described, as Felis leo, by Linnaeus in his eighteenth century work, Systema Naturae.[(Latin) Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata.. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii)., p. 824. ] The generic component of its scientific designation, Panthera leo, is often presumed to derive from Greek pan- ("all") and ther ("beast"), but this may be a folk etymology. Although it came into English through the classical languages, panthera is probably of East Asian origin, meaning "the yellowish animal," or "whitish-yellow".["Panther". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.]
Taxonomy and evolution
 Skull of a modern lion at Kruger National Park The oldest lion-like fossil is known from Laetoli in Tanzania and is perhaps 3.5 million years old; some scientists have identified the material as Panthera leo. These records are not well-substantiated, and all that can be said is that they pertain to a Panthera-like felid. The oldest confirmed records of Panthera leo in Africa are about 2 million years younger.[Werdelin, Lars; Lewis, Margaret E. (June 2005). "Plio-Pleistocene Carnivora of eastern Africa: species richness and turnover patterns". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144 (2): 121–144. The Linnean Society of London. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. ]
The closest relatives of the lion are the other Panthera species: the tiger, the jaguar and the leopard. Morphological and genetic studies reveal that the tiger was the first of these recent species to diverge. About 1.9 million years ago the Jaguar branched off the remaining group, which contained ancestors of the leopard and lion. The Lion and leopard subsequently separated about 1 to 1.25 million years ago from each other.[Yu, Li; Ya-ping Zhang (May 2003). "Phylogenetic studies of pantherine cats (Felidae) based on multiple genes, with novel application of nuclear β-fibrinogen intron 7 to carnivores". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 35 (2): 483–495. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.01.017. ]
Panthera leo itself evolved in Africa between 1 million and 800,000 years ago before spreading throughout the Holarctic region;[Yamaguchi, Nobuyuki; Alan Cooper, Lars Werdelin and David W. Macdonald (August 2004). "Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (Panthera leo): a review". Journal of Zoology 263 (4): 329–42. doi:10.1017/S0952836904005242. ISSN 1469-7998. ] It appeared in Europe for the first time 700,000 years ago with the subspecies Panthera leo fossilis at Isernia in Italy. From this lion derived the later Cave lion (Panthera leo spelaea), which appeared about 300,000 years ago. During the upper Pleistocene the lion spread to North and South America, and developed into Panthera leo atrox, the American lion.[Turner, Allen (1997). The big cats and their fossil relatives : an illustrated guide to their evolution and natural history. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10229-1. ] Lions died out in northern Eurasia and America at the end of the last glaciation, about 10,000 years ago;[Harington, CR (1996). American Lion. Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre website. Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre. Retrieved on 2007-09-22.]
Subspecies
 Southwest African lion (Panthera leo bleyenberghi) Traditionally 12 recent subspecies of lion were recognized, the largest of which has been recognised as the Barbary lion.[Barbary Lion - Panthera leo leo - Largest Lion Subspecies Retrieved on 19 September, 2007] The major differences between these subspecies are location, mane appearance, size and distribution. Because these characteristics are very insignificant and show a high individual variability, most of these forms were debatable and probably invalid; additionally, they were often based upon zoo material of unknown origin that may have had "striking, but abnormal" morphological characteristics.[Grisham, Jack (2001). "Lion". Encyclopedia of the World\'s Zoos Volume 2: G–P. Ed. Catherine E. Bell. Chofago: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp.733–739. ISBN1-57958-174-9. ] Today only eight subspecies are usually accepted,[Burger, Joachim et al. (March 2004). "Molecular phylogeny of the extinct cave lion Panthera leo spelaea". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30 (3): 841–849. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.020. Retrieved on 2007-09-20. ] but one of these, the Cape lion formerly described as Panthera leo melanochaita is probably invalid.[Barnett, Ross; Nobuyuki Yamaguchi, Ian Barnes and Alan Cooper (2006). "The origin, current diversity and future conservation of the modern lion (Panthera leo)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273 (1598): 2119–2125. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3555. Retrieved on 2007-09-04. ][Dubach, Jean; et al (January 2005). "Molecular genetic variation across the southern and eastern geographic ranges of the African lion, Panthera leo". Conservation Genetics 6 (1): 15–24. doi:10.1007/s10592-004-7729-6. ]
Recent
Eight recent subspecies are recognized today:
- P. l. persica, known as the Asiatic- or South Asian, Persian or Indian lion, was once widespread from Turkey, across the Middle East, to Pakistan, India and even Bangladesh. However, large prides and daylight activity made it easier to poach than tigers or leopards; now around 300 exist in and near the Gir Forest of India.
[Wildlife Conservation Trust of India (2006). Asiatic Lion - History. Asiatic Lion Information Centre. Wildlife Conservation Trust of India. Retrieved on 2007-09-15.]
- P. l. leo, known as the Barbary lion, is extinct in the wild due to excessive hunting, although captive individuals may still exist. This was the largest of the lion subspecies, at 3–3.5m approx., and weighing over 150 kilograms and more. They ranged from Morocco to Egypt. The last wild Barbary lion was killed in Morocco in 1922.
[
] - P. l. senegalensis, known as the West African lion, is found in Western Africa, from Senegal to Nigeria.
- P. l. azandica, known as the North East Congo lion, is found in the Northeastern parts of the Congo.
- P. l. nubica, known as the East African- or Massai lion, is found in East Africa, from Ethiopia and Kenya to Tanzania and Mozambique.
- P. l. bleyenberghi, known as the Southwest African- or Katanga lion. It is found in southwestern Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, Katanga (Zaire).
- P. l. krugeri, known as the Southeast African- or Transvaal lion, is found in the Transvaal region of South eastern Africa, including Kruger National Park.
- P. l. melanochaita, known as the Cape lion, became extinct in the wild around 1860. Results of mitochondrial DNA research do not support the status as a distinct subspecies. It seems probable that the Cape lion was only the southernmost population of the extant southern African lion.
Prehistoric
Several additional subspecies of lion existed in prehistoric times:
- P. l. atrox, known as the American lion or American cave lion, was abundant in the Americas from Alaska to Peru in the Pleistocene Epoch until about 10,000 years ago. This form as well as the cave lion are sometimes considered to represent separate species, but recent phylogenetic studies lead to suggest, that they are in fact subspecies of the lion (Panthera leo).
[Martin, P.S. (1984). Quaternary Extinctions. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1100-4. ]
- P. l. fossilis, known as the Early Middle Pleistocene European cave lion, flourished about 500,000 years ago; fossils have been recovered from Germany and Italy.
- P. l. spelaea, known as the European cave lion, Eurasian cave lion or Upper Pleistocene European cave lion, occurred in Eurasia 300,000 to 10,000 years ago.
[Packer, Craig; Jean Clottes (November 2000). "When Lions Ruled France" (PDF). Natural History: 52–57. Retrieved on 2007-08-27. ] indicating it had protruding ears, tufted tails, perhaps faint tiger-like stripes, and that at least some males had a ruff or primitive mane around their necks.
- P. l. vereshchagini, known as the East Siberian- or Beringian cave lion, was found in Yakutia (Russia), Alaska (USA), and the Yukon Territory (Canada). Analysis of skulls and mandibles of this lion demonstrate that it is distinct—larger than the European cave lion and smaller than the American cave lion with differing skull proportions.
[Baryshnikov, G.F.; G. Boeskorov (2001). "The Pleistocene cave lion, Panthera spelaea (Carnivora, Felidae) from Yakutia, Russia". Cranium 18 (1): 7–24. ]
Dubious
- P. l. sinhaleyus, known as the Sri Lanka lion, appears to have become extinct around 39,000 years ago. It is only known from two teeth found in deposits at Kuruwita. Based on these teeth, P. Deraniyagala erected this subspecies in 1939.
[Kelum Manamendra-Arachchi, Rohan Pethiyagoda, Rajith Dissanayake, Madhava Meegaskumbura (2005). "A second extinct big cat from the late Quaternary of Sri Lanka.". The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement 12: 423–434. National University of Singapore. Retrieved on 2007-07-31. ]
- P. l. europaea, known as the European lion, was probably identical with Panthera leo persica or Panthera leo spelea; its status as subspecies is unconfirmed. It became extinct around 100 AD due to persecution and over-exploitation. Inhabited the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, southern France and the Iberian Peninsula. It was a very popular object of hunting among Romans, Greeks and Macedonians.
- P. l. youngi or Panthera youngi , known as the North-Eastern Pleistocene China cave lion, flourished 350,000 years ago.
[Harington, CR (1969). "Pleistocene remains of the lion-like cat (Panthera atrox) from the Yukon Territory and northern Alaska". Canadian Journal Earth Sciences 6 (5): 1277–88. ] Its relationship to the extant lion subspecies is obscure, and probably represents a distinct species.
- P. l. maculatus, known as the Marozi or Spotted lion, is sometimes believed to be a distinct subspecies, but may be an adult lion that has retained its juvenile spotted pattern. If it was a subspecies in its own right, rather than a small number of aberrantly colored individuals, it has been extinct since 1931. A less likely identity is a natural leopard/lion hybrid commonly known as a leopon.
[Shuker, Karl P.N. (1989). Mystery Cats of the World. Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-3706-6. ]
Hybrids
 A liger is the offspring of a male lion and female tiger. - Further information: Panthera hybrid, liger and tigon
Lions also have been known to breed with tigers (most often the Amur and Bengal subspecies) to create hybrids called ligers and tigons.[Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1975). Wild Cats of the World. New York: Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 0-8008-8324-1. ] They have also been crossed with leopards to produce leopons,[Doi H, Reynolds B (1967). The Story of Leopons. New York: Putnam. OCLC 469041. ] and jaguars to produce jaglions. The marozi is reputedly a spotted lion or a naturally occurring leopon, while the Congolese spotted lion is a complex lion/jaguar/leopard hybrid called a lijagulep. Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos, but this is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conserving species and subspecies. Hybrids are still bred in private menageries and in zoos in China.
The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress.[Markel, Scott; Darryl León (2003). Sequence Analysis in a Nutshell: a guide to common tools and databases. Sebastopol, California: O\'Reily. ISBN 0-596-00494-X. ] Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female lion is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species (spots and stripes on a sandy background). Male ligers are sterile, but female ligers are often fertile. Males have about a 50% chance of having a mane, but if they grow one their manes will be modest: around 50% of a pure lion mane. Ligers are typically between 3.0 and 3.7 m (10 to 12 feet) in length, and can be between 360 and 450 kg (800 to 1,000 pounds) or more.[tigon - Encyclopædia Britannica Article. Retrieved on 12 September, 2007.]
Physical characteristics
 During confrontations with others, the mane makes the lion look bigger than he really is. The lion is the second largest feline after the tiger. With powerful legs, a strong jaw, and long canine teeth, the lion can bring down and kill large prey.[Lion. Honolulu Zoo. Retrieved on 2007-07-12.] Lion coloration varies from light buff to yellowish, reddish or dark ochraceous brown. The underparts are generally lighter and the tail tuft is black. The color of the mane varies from blond to black.
Weights for adult lions generally lie between 150–250 kg (330–550 lb) for males, and 120–180 kg (260–400 lb) for females.[Nowak, Ronald M. (1999). Walker\'s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9. ] Nowell and Jackson report average weights of 181 kg for males and 126 kg for females; one male shot near Mount Kenya was weighed at 272 kg (600 lb).[Nowell K, Jackson P (1996). "Panthera Leo", [http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action
Plan] (PDF), Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, 17–21. ISBN 2-8317-0045-0. ] Head and body length is 170–250 cm (5 ft 7 in–8 ft 2 in) in males and 140–175 cm (4 ft 7 in–5 ft 9 in) in females; shoulder height is about 123 cm (4 ft) in males and 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) in females. The tail length is 70–100 cm (2 ft 3 in–3 ft 3 in).[Nowak, Ronald M. (1999). Walker\'s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9. ] The tail ends in a hairy tuft. The tuft conceals a spine, approximately 5 mm long, formed of the final sections of tail bone fused together. The lion is the only felid to have a tufted tail and the function of the tuft and spine are unknown. Absent at birth, the tuft develops around 5½ months of age and readily identifiable at 7 months.[Schaller, p. 28]
Mane
 Thermal image of a lion, showing the insulating manes The mane of the male lion, unique amongst cats, is one of the most distinctive characteristics of the species. It makes the lion appear larger, providing an excellent intimidation display; this aids the lion during confrontations with other lions and with the species\' chief competitor in Africa, the spotted hyena.[
Trivedi, Bijal P. (2005). Are Maneless Tsavo Lions Prone to Male Pattern Baldness?. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-07-07.] The presence, absence, color, and size of the mane is associated with genetic precondition, sexual maturity, climate and testosterone production; the rule of thumb is the darker and fuller the mane, the healthier the lion.[Trivedi, Bijal P. (August 22, 2002). Female Lions Prefer Dark-Maned Males, Study Finds. National Geographic News. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-09-01.] Research in Tanzania also suggests mane length signals fighting success in male-male relationships. Darker-maned individuals may have longer reproductive lives and higher offspring survival, although they suffer in the hottest months of the year.[West, Peyton M.; Craig Parker (August 2002). "Sexual Selection, Temperature, and the Lion\'s Mane". Science 297 (5585): 1339–1343. doi:10.1126/science.1073257. ] In prides including a coalition of two or three males, it is possible that lionesses solicit mating more actively with heavily maned lions. Scientists once believed that the distinct status of some subspecies could be justified by morphology, including the size of the mane. Morphology was used to identify subspecies such as the Barbary lion and Cape lion. Research has suggested, however, that environmental factors influence the color and size of a lion\'s mane, such as the ambient temperature.[ The cooler ambient temperature in European and North American zoos, for example, can result in a heavy mane. Thus the mane is an inappropriate marker for identifying subspecies.][Barnett, Ross; Nobuyuki Yamaguchi, Ian Barnes and Alan Cooper (August 2006). "Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion Panthera leo: Implications for its ex situ conservation". Conservation Genetics 7 (4): 507–514. doi:10.1007/s10592-005-9062-0. ][Yamaguchi, Nobuyuki; B. Haddane (2002). "The North African Barbary lion and the Atlas Lion Project". International Zoo News 49: 465–481. ] However the males of the Asiatic subspecies are characterized by sparser manes than average African lions.[Menon, Vivek (2003). A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Delhi: Dorling Kindersley India. ISBN 0-14-302998-3. ]
 A maneless male lion, who also has little body hair - from Tsavo East National Park, Kenya Maneless male lions have been reported in Senegal and Tsavo East National Park in Kenya, and the original male white lion from Timbavati also was maneless. Castrated lions have minimal manes. The lack of a mane is found in inbred lion populations; inbreeding also results in poor fertility.[Trivedi, Bijal P. (12 June 2002). To Boost Gene Pool, Lions Artificially Inseminated. National Geographic News. National Geographic. Retrieved on 2007-09-20.]
 Lioness showing the ruff that sometimes leads to misidentification as a male Many lionesses have a ruff that may be apparent in certain poses. Sometimes it is indicated in sculptures and drawings, especially ancient artwork, and is misinterpreted as a mane, hence interpreted as a male. It differs, however, from the mane of the male in that the ruff of a lioness is at the jaw line below the ears, of much less hair length, and frequently, not noticeable; whereas the mane of the male extends above the ears, often obscuring the outline of the ears entirely.
Cave paintings of extinct European cave lions exclusively show animals with no mane or, just the hint of a mane, suggesting to some that they were more or less maneless,[(German) Koenigswald, Wighart von (2002). Lebendige Eiszeit: Klima und Tierwelt im Wandel. Stuttgart: Theiss. ISBN 3-8062-1734-3. ] however, the females hunting for a pride are more likely the subjects of the drawings—since they are shown in a group related to hunting—so these images are not reliable to make a judgment about whether the males had manes. The drawings do suggest that the extinct species used the same social orginazation and hunting strategies as contemporary prides.
White lions
 White lions owe their coloring to a recessive gene; they are rare forms of the subspecies Panthera leo krugeri The white lion is not a distinct subspecies, but a special morph with a genetic condition, leucism,[McBride, Chris (1977). The White Lions of Timbavati. Johannesburg: E. Stanton. ISBN 0-949997-32-3. ] Reportedly, they have been bred in camps in South Africa for use as trophies for canned hunts.[Tucker, Linda (2003). Mystery of the White Lions - Children of the Sun God. Mapumulanga: Npenvu Press. ISBN 0-620-31409-5. ]
Confirmation of the existence of white lions only came in the late twentieth century. For hundreds of years prior, the white lion had been thought to be a figment of legend circulating in South Africa, the white pelage of the animal said to represent the goodness in all creatures. Sightings were first reported in the early 1900s, and continued, infrequently, for almost fifty years until, in 1975, a litter of white lion cubs was found at Timbavati Game Reserve.[The rare white lions Retrieved on 20 September, 2007.]
Biology and behavior
Lions spend much of their time resting and are inactive for about 20 hours per day.[Schaller, p. 122] Although lions can be active at any time, their activity generally peaks after dusk with a period of socializing, grooming and defecating. Intermittent bursts of activity follow through the night hours to dawn, when hunting most often takes place. They spend an average two hours a day walking and 50 minutes eating.[Schaller, p. 120–1]
Hunting and diet
 While a lioness such as this has very sharp teeth, prey is usually killed by strangulation Lionesses are powerful animals who usually hunt in groups and stalk their chosen prey. They can reach speeds of 59 km/h (40 mph),[Schaller, p. 233] although, only for short bursts,[Schaller, p. 247–8] so they have to be close to their prey before starting the attack. They take advantage of factors that reduce visibility; many kills take place near some form of cover or at night.[Schaller, p. 237] They sneak up to the victim until they reach a distance of approximately 30 m (98 feet) or less. Typically, several female lions work together and encircle the herd from different points. Once they have closed with a herd, they usually target the closest prey. The attack is short and powerful, they attempt to catch the victim with a fast rush and final leap. The prey usually is killed by strangulation.[Dr Gus Mills. About lions - Ecology and behaviour. African Lion Working Group. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.]
The prey consists mainly of large mammals, with a preference for wildebeest, impalas, zebras, buffalo, and warthogs in Africa and nilgai; wild boar and several deer species in India. Many other species are hunted, based on availability. Mainly this will include ungulates weighing between 50 and 300 kg such as kudu, hartebeest, gemsbok, and eland.[Ronald M. Nowak: Walker\'s Mammals of the World.] Occasionally, they take relatively small species such as Thomson\'s gazelle or springbok. Lions living near the Namib coast feed extensively on seals.[http://www.5050.co.za/inserts.asp?ID=8258] While hunting in groups, they are capable of taking down most animals, even healthy adults, but they rarely attack very large prey such as buffalo bulls or fully grown male giraffes, due to the danger of injury.[African Lion Hunting Habits in South Africa and Southern Africa. Retrieved on 31 July, 2007.]
They normally feed on mammals no larger than 550 kg, which excludes most adult hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, elephants, giraffes, and buffalos.[Hayward, Matt W.; Graham Kerley (2005). "Prey preferences of the lion (Panthera leo)". Journal of Zoology 267 (3): 309–322. doi:10.1017/S0952836905007508. ] In some areas, they specialise in hunting atypical prey-species; this is the case at the Savuti river, where they prey on young elephants.[Kemp, Leigh. The Elephant Eaters of the Savuti. go2africa.] Park guides in the area reported that the lions, driven by extreme hunger, started taking down baby elephants, and then moved on to adolescents and, occasionally, fully grown adults.[Whitworth, Damien. "King of the jungle defies nature with new quarry", The Australian, October 9, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-07-20. ] In the Kruger National Park, giraffes are regularly hunted.[Pienaar U de V (1969). "Predator-prey relationships amongst the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park". Koedoe 12: 108-76. ] Lions also attack domestic livestock; in India cattle contribute significantly to their diet.[Vivek Menon: A Field Guide to Indian Mammals.] They are capable of killing other predators such as leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and wild dogs, as well as scavenging animals either dead from natural causes or killed by other predators.[Schaller, p. 213] A lion may gorge itself and eat up to 30 kg (66 lb) in one sitting;[Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1961). Simba: the life of the lion.. Cape Town: Howard Timmins. ] if it is unable to consume all the kill it will rest for a few hours before consuming more. On a hot day, the pride may retreat to shade leaving a male or two to stand guard.[Schaller, p. 270–76] An adult lioness requires an average of about 5 kg (11 lb) of meat per day, a male about 7 kg (15.4 lb).[Lions. Honolulu Zoo. Retrieved on 2007-07-20.]
 The hunters of a pride sharing a zebra where the kill occurred Because lionesses hunt in open spaces where they are easily seen by their prey, cooperative hunting increases the likelihood of a successful hunt; this is especially true with larger species. Teamwork also enables them to defend their prey more easily against other large predators such as hyenas, which may be attracted by vultures over kilometers in open savannas. Lionesses do most of the hunting. In typical hunts, each lioness has a favored position in the group, either stalking prey on the "wing" then attacking, or moving a smaller distance in the centre of the group and capturing prey in flight from other lionesses.[Stander, P. E. (1992). "Cooperative hunting in lions: the role of the individual". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 29 (6): 445—454. doi:10.1007/BF00170175. ]
Males attached to prides do not usually participate in the hunting by the lionesses, except when the pride is hunting large animals such as giraffe and buffalo, males lions also hunt when they are bachelors which have no pride of their own. Male lions have also been observed and recorded hunting in groups.
Young lions first display stalking behaviour around three months of age, although they do not participate in hunting until they are almost a year old. They begin to hunt effectively when nearing the age of two.[Schaller, p. 153] Depending upon how quickly they mature, two or three is the age at which males are excluded from the pride.
Reproduction
Most lionesses will have reproduced by the time they are four years of age.[Schaller, p. 29] Lions do not mate at any specific time of year, and the females are polyestrous.[Schaller, p. 174] As with other cats, the male lion\'s penis has spines which point backwards. Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female\'s vagina, which may cause ovulation.[Asdell, Sydney A. [1964] (1993). Patterns of mammalian reproduction. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-1753-5. ] A lioness may mate with more than one male when she is in heat;[Schaller, p. 142] during a mating bout, which could last several days, the couple copulates twenty to forty times a day and are likely to forgo eating. Lions reproduce very well in captivity.
 During a mating bout, a couple may copulate twenty to forty times a day for several days; the ruff of the female is clearly visible The average gestation period is around 110 days, | | | | |
